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Center for Local History Blog

Dedicated to collecting, preserving and sharing the history of the community.

Ronald (Ron) Deskins: A Quiet Pioneer for Civil Rights

The Center for Local History reflects on the passing of Ronald Deskins, a pioneer of the Civil Rights movement in Arlington County.

In Defiance of Massive Resistance

At the young age of 12, Ron Deskins played a crucial role in integrating Virginia public schools. On Feb. 2 1959, Deskins, along with classmates Michael Jones, Gloria Thompson, and Lance Newman, entered then all-white Stratford Junior High in quiet but determined defiance of Virginia Senator Harry Byrd’s policy of Massive Resistance.

This historic moment – often referred to by the press at the time as “The Day Nothing Happened” owing to the lack of violence – is now marked by banners at Dorothy Hamm Middle School, housed since 2019 at the original site of Stratford Junior High School.

"I was pretty nervous that first day," Deskins said at a 2016 tribute to the actions taken in 1959. He went on to mention that a few students "made it their business to make our lives miserable…They were not successful…Although they called us plenty of names."

Three police officers stand at the entrance to Stratford Jr. High School as the four black students enrolled in the previously all-white school arrive for classes in Arlington, Va., on Feb. 3, 1959. One of the officers records the scene with a movie camera. Approaching the entrance are, left to right, Lance Newman, 13, Ronald Deskins, 12, Michael Jones, 12, and Gloria Thompson, 12. (AP Photo)

Edward Hummer, a fellow Stratford and W-L student, interviewed Ronald Deskins for induction into the W-L Athletics Hall of Fame in 2018. At the time, Deskins was volunteering at a public library in Berryville, VA. Hummer recalled the experience of speaking with Deskins about his life:

“I was struck when I read about his very first reaction upon entering his first classroom...The four black kids were taken in a rear door to escape the throng at the front door…the other kids in Ron's homeroom were already seated and had been prepared for his arrival. When he was escorted in a few minutes after the bell, all their heads naturally turned to him as he entered. His first thought on seeing all those heads turn his way was to say to himself, "It's just me."

Ronald Deskins, Michael Jones, Lance Newman, and Gloria Thompson walked into Stratford Junior High School on February 2, 1959. (AP Photo)

Dorothy Hamm Assistant Principal Lisa Moore remarked that it is "our expectation, for all our students and staff to know this history. The history that took place in this building, they need to know that, and live that."

"Our hearts are devastated," Moore added. "This was a huge loss for our community."

Mr. Deskins’ self-effacing manner was typical of his attitude towards his accomplishments and the contributions he made during his lifetime, including his role in the integration of the Fairfax County Fire Rescue Department. Mr. Deskins was the fifth Black firefighter employed by Fairfax County and he helped establish Northern Virginia Minority Firefighters Combined. He eventually achieved the rank of Captain and retired after 34 years of service.

Edward Hummer remembers the man who thought of himself as just me as “quite a guy. It was a great pleasure and a great honor for me to get to know him so many years later when he was inducted into the W-L Athletic Hall of Fame. I am greatly saddened by his death.”

The Center for Local History (CLH) at the Arlington Public Library collects, preserves and shares historical documents that tell the history of Arlington County, its citizens, organizations, businesses and social issues.

The CLH’s Community Archives includes thousands of pages of material related to the desegregation of Arlington Public Schools, and makes these materials available to students, researchers, scholars, authors, teachers and the community.

To learn more visit the Project DAPS website and read the 2018 blogpost, The Desegregation of Arlington Public Schools.

Because there are always more layers of history to find and examine, the CLH continually seeks community donations and oral histories; use this form to send a message to the Center for Local History or contact us at localhistory@arlingtonva.us.

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Milton Rowe: Dedication to Country, Community and Family

Roots, Family and Legacy

Milton Isiah Rowe, Sr., (1925-2016) was born in Washington, D.C., to Hester and Isiah Rowe. His family moved to South Arlington, a community where they had longstanding family ties, in 1927, when Rowe was a young child.

With this move, Milton Rowe began his long life as a Green Valley resident. Over the next 89 years he served in many community and civic roles across the County, and became part of an Arlington legacy.

Milton Rowe

Family Ties in Arlington

Milton Rowe's great-grandfather was William Augustus Rowe (1834-1907), a pivotal figure in the early development of the Green Valley neighborhood. William Rowe had been born enslaved, and later escaped to Freedmans Village in Arlington.

Freedmans Village was established in 1863 on land seized from Robert E. Lee and occupied by the Union Army during the Civil War and became a thriving community for freed slaves.

Ink painting on brown canvas of Freedman's Village

Artist representation of Freedmans Village, circa 1864.

William Rowe first trained as a blacksmith and later served in numerous civic roles, including as the first Black member of the Board of Supervisors and Arlington District Board Chairman.

Learn more about William Augustus Rowe in our blogpost from March, 2021.

Map of Freedmans Village, circa July 1865.

William Rowe

A portrait of William A. Rowe currently hangs in the Center for Local History.

Growing up in Green Valley before WWII

Milton Rowe first attended Kemper Elementary School in Green Valley. At this point, Arlington’s public school system was still segregated. Kemper was the school designated for Black children, and had opened in 1875 within Lomax A.M.E. Zion Church.

By 1893 the school had moved into a new brick, two-story building constructed by Noble Thomas, the first Black contractor in the County. Hoffman-Boston School was the only secondary school available to Black children in Arlington, and many chose to commute outside of the County for educational options.

Rowe attended Garnet-Patterson Junior High School and Armstrong Technical High School in Washington, D.C., for his secondary education. Armstrong was one of only two high schools open to Black students at the beginning of the 20th century

During and After WWII

After high school, Milton Rowe went on to work at the Pentagon and subsequently enlisted into the Coast Guard, where he served on the USS Pocatello during WWII.

Upon his honorable discharge, Rowe returned to the Arlington area to work at the Pentagon and on March 31, 1945 married Ruth Mae Robinson, who also worked at the Pentagon as a typist. They were married in Lomax A.M.E. Zion Church, the church William Rowe and his wife Ellen helped organize in 1863 and where William Rowe had also been an early member.

Milton Rowe, date unknown.

Ruth and Milton Rowe went on to have four children – Gloria, Milton, Jr., Elroy and Brian (as of June 1, 2022, there are 2 daughters-in-law, one son-in-law, 12 grandchildren, 11 great grandchildren and 3 great, great grandchildren).

In 1995, Milton and Ruth celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary. Ruth died in 2004.

Ruth and Milton Rowe.

The Rowe Family at Ruth and Milton's 50th wedding anniversary party.

Paul Dunbar Housing Community

Milton and Ruth Rowe were early owners of a home in the Paul Dunbar housing community in Green Valley, a wartime housing unit for Black residents built in 1944 by the Federal Public Housing Authority. They featured 15 masonry buildings with 86 units.

The Dunbar Homes were one of two major housing cooperatives established during the war, along with the George Washington Carver Homes. After the war, Black residents pooled their resources and bought the housing complexes, establishing the first two Black-owned housing cooperatives in the country. The Dunbar Mutual Homes Association maintained the property until 2006, when it was demolished.

In 1955, the couple built and relocated the family into a home near the Army Navy Country Club in south Arlington.

A historic marker celebrating the original members of the Paul Lawrence Dunbar Mutual Homes Association is located at the corner of Shirlington Road and South Four Mile Run, across from the W&OD Trailhead.

Professional Butler for Embassies and the White House

Rowe retired from the Pentagon after 37 years of service with the army, receiving many letters of commendation for his outstanding performance of duty.

He continued his career as a professional butler, a second job he held throughout his working life.

In this role, he worked at various embassies and the home of Robert F. Kennedy in McLean. There, he remembered meeting John F. Kennedy, whom he once loaned a pair of boots to on a snowy Virginia day. 

Rowe also served at numerous events at the White House, where he met many of the presidents of the 20th century. 

Rowe at work at the White House.

White House butlers with President George W. Bush and his wife Barbara .

Community Engagement

Milton Rowe was active in the Green Valley community and served on the Trustee Boards and various committees at Lomax A.M.E. Zion.

He was also a member of the Nauck Citizen’s Association (now the Green Valley Civic Association), the Arlington Housing Committee, the NAACP, the Y.M.C.A., the American Legion, and several seniors’ groups. He was also an advisor to his sons’ Boy Scouts Troop #589, which has a historic legacy as one of the first local scouting groups for Black children, established in 1952 by Ernest Johnson.

A February 17, 1962, Northern Virginia Sun article mentions Milton Rowe’s role as chairman of the Men of Lomax organization, along with details from a church event. Newspaper image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

In 2010, NBC reported on Milton Rowe in a feature about the legacy of Freedmans Village on the grounds of Arlington National Cemetery. The cemetery was constructed on the grounds of Freedmans Village, which had been closed by the government in the 1890s to make way for the burial grounds. The closure of Freedmans Village displaced the nearly 1,000 Black residents who had made their homes there. No markers exist to commemorate the freed slaves who had once lived on the land.

Milton Rowe’s life touched many important parts of the County’s history, and his legacy lives on through his many achievements and experiences that made him a pillar of both Green Valley and Arlington at large.

Learn more: Milton Rowe is featured in Dr. Alfred O. Taylor’s book “Bridge Builders of Nauck/Green Valley: Past and Present.”

The Center for Local History at the Arlington Public Library collects, preserves and shares historical documents that tell the history of Arlington County, its citizens, organizations, businesses and social issues. The CLH operates the Research Room at Central Library and the Community Archives program.

Because there are always more layers of history to find and examine, the CLH continually seeks community donations and oral histories.

Use this form to send a message to the Center for Local History or contact us at localhistory@arlingtonva.us.

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Oral History: Gertrude “Trudy” Ensign

U.S. Army Intelligence Analyst During World War II

ArlingtonVoices800pxpinksoundwave

Oral histories are used to understand historical events, actors, and movements from the point of view of real people’s personal experiences.

1920-2022

The life of long-time Arlington resident Gertrude "Trudy" Ensign was recently memorialized at Clarendon United Methodist Church. Born October 4, 1920 on a farm in southwest Iowa, Ensign left Iowa to take a job with the Army Security Agency (a precursor to the NSA) during World War II, settling in Arlington, where she lived until her death on February 28, 2022.

In November 2017, Ensign recorded an oral history with the Center for Local History. She spoke about her work during the war, as well as life in Arlington.

In this excerpt from the oral history, she talks about her work during the war. While not a code breaker herself, Ensign worked in Army communications.

Link to oral history blog post.

Col. Mosser presents Mrs. Gertrude C. Brown (Ensign) with an Outstanding Performance Rating Award on 30 March, 1971 at Arlington Hall Station (from reverse of photo)

Narrator: Gertrude Ensign
Interviewers: Judith Knudsen
Date: November 6, 2017

INTERVIEWER: Well, when you say there were people there, they were cracking Japanese code. That was not your job.

NARRATOR: Yes. Not my job.

INTERVIEWER: So what codes were you getting? Were you getting the codes that had been cracked, and then you had to encipher with the—

NARRATOR: Okay. This is the part that I think we have to understand, that none of this could happen if we didn’t have field stations.

INTERVIEWER: Okay.

NARRATOR: Because that’s where our intercept came from. Like Vint Hill Farm was an intercept station, and they had a whole field of antennas up out in the field. There were field stations in the Pacific, and there were field stations in Alaska. I think there were some in Europe, too. It made sense. If not field stations, then they had some other options. Maybe they had direction-finding stations, which, you know, you have a unit with direction equipment, maybe 180 degrees, and if you all were pointing at this thing, then you would be able to intercept—find a station, an enemy station you were looking for, and be able to intercept them.

INTERVIEWER: Okay.

NARRATOR: And if you could do that, then you could identify the location, because you were getting the signals from different locations based on where you were. So that was really the part that—our part of what happened at ASA [Army Security Agency]. I mean, we knew that there was a whole building called B Building where they were trying to break the codes. But that was not any of what we were concerned with. When the codes were broken I guess they went wherever they were supposed to go, which would have been, you know, teletyped there someplace else. But anything that we—most that we handled was administrative and keeping the field stations open and things like that. After the war we probably had more like regular communications, because we’d have the commanders of the different field stations come back in. At that point I had moved to a different job, because when—during the war there was no question about you having a job there. But when the war was over, one of the bosses came out to me one day and said, “You know, the war’s over, and the boys are coming back. They said there’s a gentleman here in the area that has the same qualifications you do, because he worked in the field during the war. And he has a promote—he can take your job,” in other words. But they said, There’s a job open down in what we call GAS50, and you can go down and apply for that job. Well, it sort of took me by surprise, of course, but that’s exactly what I did. That job then, the gentleman that interviewed me said, “Well,”—I think I was a GS6, 00:11:00 and he said, “You’ll have to take a break to a GS5.” But then he said, “When you get your promotions, it’ll be a GS5-7-9-11-13,” and so that’s what I did then. So when I retired I was GS13, which was a very nice grade.

INTERVIEWER: Yes, it is a very nice grade.

NARRATOR: It left me a very nice income.

The goal of the Arlington Voices project is to showcase the Center for Local History’s oral history collection in a publicly accessible and shareable way.

The Arlington Public Library began collecting oral histories of long-time residents in the 1970s, and since then the scope of the collection has expanded to capture the diverse voices of Arlington’s community.

To browse our list of narrators indexed by interview subject, check out our community archive. To read a full transcript of an interview, make an appointment to visit the Center for Local History located at Central Library.

Do you have a question about this story, or a personal experience to share? 

Use this form to send a message to the Center for Local History.

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The Henry Louis Holmes Library, 1940-1949

Created by Arlington's Black Residents to Serve Their Community During Segregation

What follows is the first in-depth history of the Holmes Library, and of segregated library services in Arlington County. Drawn from primary source material held in the Arlington Community Archives as well as the work of researchers at other regional libraries, this history aims to honor the volunteer-led efforts of Arlington’s Black community, and to answer two critical questions: When and why did Arlington desegregate its public libraries?

The story of Arlington’s first library for Black patrons is one of an extraordinary grassroots effort led by members of Arlington’s Black community.

The Henry Louis Holmes Library was established in 1940 as a community-led facility to fill in the gap created by segregationist County and state policies. In order to bring books and material resources to the County’s Black residents who had been denied such services, a group of Black Arlingtonians worked together in order to establish an independent branch.

The Holmes Library would later join the still-segregated County library system as the only branch available to Black Arlingtonians until its closure in 1949, and the subsequent desegregation of Arlington's libraries in 1950.

 

Exterior of the Henry Louis Holmes
Library branch, 1946. The building was located in the George Washington Carver Homes complex at 13th Street South and South Queen Streets.

An Exclusionary System

Arlington’s at-large library system began as a series of volunteer-run organizations, which were later incorporated into the County in 1937. Volunteer and civic groups across the County’s neighborhoods started five local branches in the early 20th century: Glencarlyn, Cherrydale, Clarendon, Aurora Hills, and Arlington (later Columbia Pike).

After operating independently for years, in 1936 the Arlington County Library Association was formed, and the following year Libraries became an official County department with a budget that included an allocation of funds for the hiring of a library director.

From their founding, these branches only provided services to white constituents.

Libraries in Other Municipalities

The neighboring jurisdictions around Arlington were similarly segregated during the Jim Crow era, and followed a similar pattern of segregated volunteer-led branches that incorporated into segregated municipal systems. From the 1930s-1960s, libraries became an increasingly significant issue in the fight for equal access to public services, in both the state and the nation. In some places, it took decades to achieve integrated facilities.

In one notable local case, in August 1939, a group of Black Alexandrians held a sit-in at the Queen Street branch of the Alexandria City Public Library, protesting the denial of resources to Black members of the community. Police arrived and arrested the protesters for “disorderly conduct.” Samuel Wilbert Tucker (1913-1990), a lawyer who led the demonstration, was prepared to challenge the City in court, but the City stalled negotiations in an effort to resist integration.

Against Tucker’s wishes for integration, the City instead built a segregated library for Black patrons, which would remain the only option available to Black Alexandria residents until desegregation in the 1960s. The Robert H. Robinson Library was incorporated into the Alexandria system less than a year after the sit-ins under the “separate but equal” segregationist doctrine.

At this time, the only library available in Arlington to Black children was the school library at Hoffman-Boston School, which operated as the only secondary school for Black students until the public school system desegregated in 1959.

Students study in the Hoffman-Boston School
library, circa 1950. Image from RG 307.

An Association to Organize the Library

Facing this lack of local and accessible resources, a group of Black Arlington residents, without financial assistance from the County, came together to establish the Henry Louis Holmes Library Association in July 1940, to maintain a library for use by the Black community. Since this library would serve Black residents across the County, representatives from organizations across Arlington were also called to join in in the efforts. Early members represented the Civic Association of Halls Hill, the Nauck neighborhood and the Jennie Dean Club.

A Board of Directors was also assembled, including the Reverend A. Mackley (representing Mount Olive Baptist Church), Mrs. Henry Chapman, Mrs. Jessie Pollard, Mrs. Annie Belcher, and Mrs. Nora Drew (Mrs. Drew was the matriarch of the Drew family and mother of Charles Drew, a pioneering surgeon and founder of the modern-day blood bank. Her daughter, Nora Drew Gregory, later became a well-known library advocate as a library board trustee for Washington, D.C.).

The group then selected officers and committees, including the Constitution; Name; Books; Accessioning and Cataloging; Program; Ways and Means; Publicity; and Rooms committees. Selected as its first president was Kitty Bruce, with Marie Ponce serving as secretary. Kitty Bruce was chairwoman of the Arlington Inter-Racial Commission and a teacher at the Francis Junior High School in Washington, D.C., a school for Black children living in the Foggy Bottom and Georgetown neighborhoods.

The first page of the Holmes Library Association Constitution. It is notable that the library association, while formed with the intention of serving the Black community, wrote that “Any individual who is interested in the library may become a member by making it known and participating in the work of the association.”

Honoring the Past

In August 1940, the Library Association voted to honor Henry Louis Holmes in both its name and the name of its forthcoming branch. Holmes had been a prominent local civic leader, serving as the elected Commissioner of Revenue for Alexandria from 1877 to 1904. Previously enslaved, Holmes had come to Freedman’s Village in Arlington in his early life. He gained political success in the Reconstruction-era boom of Black political leaders, and was involved with the Radical Republican party, as well as in fraternal organizations such as the Masons and Odd Fellows and as a trustee of St. John’s Baptist Church. He also founded the Butler-Holmes community, a Black streetcar neighborhood in what is now the Penrose neighborhood.

In making this decision, the Association sought the blessing of Mrs. Emma Clifford, Holmes’ daughter, for use of the name. Mrs. Clifford wholeheartedly approved of the naming decision and donated a portrait of Mr. Holmes to the library as well as a set of encyclopedias.

Left: Portrait of Henry L. Holmes, date and artist unknown. Image courtesy of the “Built By the People Themselves” digital exhibit.

Right: The portrait of Holmes is currently located in the offices of the Commissioner of Revenue on the second floor of the Bozman Government Building. It was donated in 1985 by the Arlington Links Club, which described it as having once hung in the original Holmes library building. Current Commissioner of Revenue Ingrid Morroy, who was elected in November 2003, is the second person of color, since Holmes, to hold the position in the history of the office. Image courtesy of Susan T. Anderson, Communications Director for the Commissioner of Revenue.

In August 1940, the library formally requested to be housed in the basement of Mount Olive Baptist Church, which was located at 700 South Arlington Ridge Road between Columbia Pike and Washington Boulevard in the Johnson’s Hill/Arlington View neighborhood.

This site was recognized as a temporary location for the library, which was expected to grow in the years to come. By September, the church had formally granted their request in turn, with a few stipulations regarding maintenance and upkeep. For one, the church would not charge the library rent, but asked for an occasional donation for things like the custodian’s salary and fuel.

Letter from Marie Ponce and Kitty Bruce to the Mount Olive Church requesting use of their space for the Henry Louis Holmes Library.

Finding a Home for the New Library

The library initially supplied its catalog with donated books, which came from organizations such as the Alpha Gamma and Iota Chi Lambda sororities, and book showers hosted by other local civic groups. It was also noted that some books and shelves were donated from the Clarendon Library Association, as initiated by the Association's president Mrs. H.S. Cowman and a Mrs. Rice.

In addition, members of the association wrote letters seeking book recommendations from the historian and scholar Charles H. Wesley – the then-dean of the Howard University Graduate School – and Carter G. Woodson, the renowned Washington-D.C.-based historian, and the founder of Black History Month.

Letter of response from Charles H. Wesley to Holmes Library Association President Kitty Bruce regarding suggestions for books related to Black life for the Holmes Library.

Opening Ceremony

The Henry Louis Holmes Library formally opened on November 14, 1940, a date chosen to align with both National Book Week and National Education Week (Opening program 1 and 2).

Among the festivities marking its debut was a speech by the Rev. Dr. J. Francis Gregory, member of the department of English at the Miner Teachers College (Dr. Gregory’s grandson Francis A. Gregory would become the first Black member of the Washington, D.C., library board of trustees, and was the husband of Nora Drew Gregory. He is the namesake of the Francis A. Gregory Neighborhood Library in Washington, D.C.) Dr. Gregory addressed the crowd and delivered a speech, during which he stated: “The library in any community should be a center of activity in any community, serving as a social, cultural, ethical and spiritual, as well as intellectual, recreational center.” (The Formal Opening of the Henry Louis Holmes Library-1). He also gifted the library a copy of “The Life of Frederick Douglass,” a biography on the famous orator and abolitionist written by his father, James Monroe Gregory.

Program from the Holmes Library opening at Mt. Olive Church on November 14, 1940.

Another Home for the Holmes

The library was based in the Mount Olive Church basement until 1942, when the church property was taken over by the U.S. government. The church was ordered by the War Department to vacate the property in July 1942 , to make way for roadways leading to the Pentagon’s facilities. The church reopened at a new site at 1600 14th Street South in the Johnson’s Hill/Arlington View neighborhood in 1944.

The original Mount Olive building,
circa 1938. From RG 06.

In the meantime, the Holmes Library Association ran programs to benefit the community, including prominent speakers from the broader D.C. community. These included an address by Dr. Rayford Logan, a renowned Black historian, scholar, and professor emeritus at Howard University.

The Holmes Library found its next home in the basement of Lomax A.M.E. Zion Church, where it reopened on September 5, 1942. The Lomax site brought with it new developments, such as a children’s story hour.

Left: Flyer advertising the debut of the Holmes Library in the basement of Lomax church, its second home after Mount Olive.
Right: Lomax A.M.E. Zion at 2706 South 24th Street, taken August 31, 1996.

The Holmes Branch Incorporates into the County

Since founding the Holmes Library Association, the group had discussed joining with the County library system at a future date. In its initial meetings in July 1940, early long-term plans included eventually seeking financial assistance from the County. The first step in this was meeting County requirements via the American Library Association, which required 1,500 books to qualify as an official library. In its July 25, 1940, meeting minutes, Secretary Marie Ponce wrote: “It is hoped that from this beginning we can eventually work up the 1,500 books required before we can be recognized by the Library association.”

In February 1941 it was reiterated that the group would attempt to seek County aid (rather than state aid), and a Study and Plan Committee was formed to “carefully study out a plan to get aid from the County.” Plans around seeking County aid were always in the context of maintaining the Holmes Library separately, rather than as part of an effort to integrate the County library system.

In February 1944, members of the Holmes Library Association met with Mildred Blattner, the County Librarian. By this point, the Holmes Library had surpassed the American Library Association’s requirement of 1,500 books, and offered to turn over its collection of 2,500 books to the County. In March 23 letters to County Board Chair Leo Lloyd and County Manager Frank Hanrahan, the Holmes Association asked to be included in the July 1944 County library budget. On March 25, Lloyd replied that their request had been received favorably, and on April 5, 1944, Holmes Library Association President Kitty Bruce appeared before the County Board to formally appeal for inclusion of the Holmes as a County branch.

Letters exchanged between Kitty Bruce and Leo Lloyd in March 1944
signal the incorporation of the Holmes Library into the County Library system.

Bruce and the Holmes Library Association were successful. The Holmes Library – now the Holmes Branch – was eventually bequeathed $2,100 from the County Board to open its new branch location, which would formally be a part of the County library system. This site would be the library’s first independent and freestanding building. The County also established a deposit station in the Hoffman-Boston School library in 1945.

Holmes’ Home in the Carver Homes

The Holmes Branch’s final location was in an administrative building in the George Washington Carver Homes complex at 13th Street South and South Queen Streets. The Carver Homes had begun as a Federal Public Housing Authority project in 1943 to house displaced families and individuals largely from East Arlington and Queen City whose homes had been razed during the construction of the Pentagon. By 1944, the housing complex consisted of 270 trailers and 100 temporary public-financed housing units. The same year, after a visit from first lady Eleanor Roosevelt, the government commissioned the George Washington Carver Homes, a permanent, 8-building apartment complex in Arlington View. This, along with the Dunbar Homes, a similar permanent housing complex, was completed in 1944.

The County eventually set aside $2,100 for the Holmes Branch upon its incorporation into the County Library System. The budget allocated funds for the purchase of books, supplies, and the hiring of a part-time librarian.

The Holmes Branch opened on the Carver Homes land on June 25, 1944, and was led by branch assistant Constance (Connie) Spencer. The occasion was marked by a robust celebration, featuring a speech by longtime association member Nora Drew, and an address by Howard University Library’s Dorothy McAllister. Branch librarian Madge Sydnor and branch assistant Rosaline Brooks joined the staff the following year.

Program from the June 25, 1944, opening of the Holmes Library.

At this point, the activities of the Holmes Library Association largely slowed, as their efforts in fundraising and staffing the library were absorbed by the County. Upon absorbing the Holmes collections into the wider County system, about 1,200 volumes were discarded after being labeled as not meeting branch standards, and 250 books were added from books gifted to the County and other copies.

In some ways, while County aid expanded the scope of the Holmes Library, inequalities and still persisted in how the County operated the branch. In an initial letter from Mildred Blattner to County Manager Frank Hanrahan, she wrote that “Since the reading habits of the colored population are not established I think it advisable to go rather slowly, providing popular books for the adult and standards for the children, until we can create reading habits that warrant a wider scope.”

A librarian and two children inside the Holmes Library Branch, 1946.

In some of the earliest aggregate circulation statistics between the branches in annual reports, the Holmes Branch consistently had the lowest number of total books. In the 1946-1947 annual reports, the Holmes had about half of the collection of the next lowest-stocked branch, Glencarlyn. From 1948-1949, only 113 additions were made to the Holmes’ collection, while the other branches received additions of anywhere between 500-1,482 books.

1946-1947 Total Book Collection:

Screen Shot 2022-02-15 at 2.04.07 PM

Forced Closure

The Holmes Branch remained open until 1949, when the branch was shuttered along with the sale of the Carver Homes property. After the end of World War II, Congress directed the Public Housing Authority to dispose of the Carver Homes and the Dunbar Homes. The properties were offered to the County for sale, which initially rejected the offers. In response, Black residents founded two cooperatives to purchase the former wartime housing - the Paul Lawrence Dunbar and George Washing Carver Mutual Associations.

The cooperatives’ bids were accepted, and the groups became the first two Black-owned cooperatives in the United States. The cooperatives sought to keep affordable housing options open, as other property developers could have excluded Black residents. Restrictive covenants and other segregated housing laws made purchasing homes and property exceedingly difficult for Black Arlingtonians, along with a general lack of available affordable housing.

Unfortunately, this housing victory came at the expense of the Holmes Branch. In July 1949, in a letter to County Manager A.T. Lundberg, the general housing manager of the Carver Homes reported that the library building was to be demolished to make room for further development.

Article from the Northern Virginia Sun on August 12, 1949, detailing the sale of the Carver Homes. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

In response, the Holmes Library Association reactivated in an attempt to save the branch. Mildred Blattner, who had corresponded with the housing manager and the Association, had suggested that continuation of the branch would be possible if a suitable new location was found. The Association swiftly located a new site, near the John H. Langston School, of which the group wrote “we feel that a branch would meet with the enthusiastic response of people in the area.” However, this option never came to fruition.

The children’s book collections – amounting to about 2,000 books – of the Holmes Library were subsequently moved to the library at the Hoffman-Boston School, where they continued to be circulated as public library holdings until 1960. At this point, the 1,617 volumes were likely absorbed by the Hoffman-Boston library, which continued to operate until its final class graduated in 1964.

In library reports, the only staff member listed for Hoffman-Boston was a “Custodian” whose name was not given and was referred to as a “Teacher at the School.” However, Hoffman-Boston in fact had a longtime school librarian whose name was Mildred Johnson.

The rest of the books from the Holmes collection were put into a storage shed behind the Clarendon Branch and used on occasion to replace copies or books or as duplicates if needed in the main library system.

Mildred Johnson, librarian at the Hoffman-Boston School library,
from its 1962 yearbook.

Members of the Library Club in the Hoffman-Boston Library, from the 1953 yearbook.

A Quiet Desegregation

In 1950, Arlington quietly reported that it had desegregated its libraries following the 1949 closure of the Holmes branch. The first mention of desegregation appears in the Library Department Annual Report for 1949-1950. Under the heading “Library Service for Colored Citizens,” it reported “In January 1950, lacking a branch library for the colored citizens, the County Manager approved the use of all branches by all residents of the County.” This was also listed as the date of desegregation in a 1964 report from the Community Council for Social Progress, and mention of library service for colored citizens does not appear in any subsequent annual reports, beyond mention of circulation statistics for the Hoffman-Boston library deposit station.

Page from the 1949-1950 annual report that details the approval of “the use of all branches by all residents of the County” by the County Manager.

While Arlington’s libraries reported themselves as being open to all residents in 1950, the precise catalyst for desegregation is unclear. Beyond the pragmatic and economic implications of the branch’s closure, this decision may have also been influenced by a 1946 law passed within the Virginia Code, as Chapter 170 of the Laws of Assembly, requiring that libraries receiving state aid would serve all residents. Many library systems used this language to interpret separate but equal services permissible under this stipulation, as Arlington also had done within its system. Previously, the law surrounding libraries had stipulated that “The service of books in County library systems receiving state aid shall be free and given to all parts of the county, region, city or town.” This added specificity in the 1946 law may have prompted the library to integrate rather than continue to maintain separate facilities for Black residents.

The timeline of desegregation has also been historically misreported in library accounts. Research initiated by the Fairfax County Public Library's Virginia Room found that in a 1963 unpublished thesis titled "Integration in Public Library Service in Thirteen Southern States," written by Bernice Lloyd Bell, surveys were sent out to municipal branches across the South regarding desegregation progress. In its response, Arlington indicated that “the library has always been open to all races.” The survey respondent (who is unknown) also suggested that neither the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision nor economic factors influenced the decision to integrate.

Survey results from Bernice Lloyd Bell’s unpublished 1963 thesis “Integration in Public Library Service in Thirteen Southern States.”

While the 1954 Brown vs. Board response aligns with the timeline of the 1950 decision, the statement that the libraries had “always” been open to all residents was not true. This response was directly contradictory to another survey completed in 1944-1945 by Mildred Blattner for a Virginia State Library report, in which she acknowledges that service to Black residents was only available at a designated branch, not in the main library. Additionally, an undated constitution from the Cherrydale Library Association, a section was amended to change its wording on membership from “Any white person living in the county who pays the annual dues may qualify as a member” to “Any person living in the county can become as a [sic] member.” This change may have reflected the 1950 County desegregation policy, and signals that the library had clearly not always served all residents.

Cherrydale Library Association and Bylaws, no date. From RG 29.

An Unclear Reality of Desegregation

It is also unclear the degree to which desegregation became publicized, or how Black residents came to use the integrated facilities. No local newspapers reported the desegregation, and though the 1963 survey reported that it was generally known that Black residents could access the main library, there is no quantitative evidence of this.

In a 1986 interview with local civil rights activist Dorothy Hamm, who came to Arlington in 1950, she suggested that at this time the libraries were still unavailable to Black residents, either by law or by the de facto practices of segregation.

Narrator: Dorothy M. Hamm

Interviewer: Edmund Campbell and Cas Cocklin

Date: February 21, 1986

Edmund Campbell: Dorothy, let's look at the conditions you found in Arlington in 1950 as far as the relationship between the races is concerned. Were there legal restrictions that were repugnant to members of the Black race at that time?

Dorothy Hamm: Yes, there were. At that time, the schools were segregated. The libraries did not permit Blacks.

EC: You mean you could not come in and get a book in the library?

DH: No, we did not, the children could not. In fact, we could not.

EC: You're speaking of the public library?

DH: As far as I can recall, the Arlington County Libraries were. The children obtained their information from the school libraries.

EC: Was there any way adult Blacks could obtain books from the library?

DH: I do not believe it was [possible] after so many years I cannot really say.

Continued Inequality Across the County

Even once the libraries had been reported as desegregated, rampant inequalities across the County made access to resources still more difficult for Black residents. In a 1959 speech delivered by an unknown speaker to the local Community Council for Social Progress, it notes that:

“[Black Arlingtonian] children have attended Arl[ington’s] separate and unequal colored schools. Near them is a meagerly equipped playground too small for a ball diamond. They are excluded from nearby white parks and playgrounds where there are ball fields and tennis courts. No Arlington movie will admit them and no Arl[ington] restaurant will serve them. They may use the Arl[ington] public libraries on an unsegregated basis. As the result of an NAACP suit segregation on busses serving Arl[ington] ended about ten years ago.”

So while Arlington’s libraries were eventually open to Black residents, it was in a larger context of a deeply segregated system in which the white majority of the County sought to prevent Black people from accessing resources. As referenced in the above speech, Arlington's public school system did not desegregate until 1959, following an extended legal and bureaucratic battle. The County's parks and recreation system did not desegregate until 1962, when the Negro Recreation Section, which had been designated for Black residents, was absorbed into the main County department.

No records have been found reflecting circulation statistics of Black residents in the integrated system, or how new patrons used the facilities. None of the affiliated librarians or volunteers at the Holmes Branch were later listed as being hired by or on the staff of the main County branches.

Conclusion

While the story of Arlington’s library desegregation is at times murky, the story of the resilience and dedication of the Holmes Library Association is undeniable. Faced with a persistent and systemic denial of resources, this group created a haven for books, learning, and discussion for members of their community at a time when the County would not do so.

This article is based on primary source documents found in the Community Archives at the Center for Local History. Documents regarding the Holmes Library can be found in Record Group 29.

This article was also heavily influenced by research conducted by Fairfax County Public Libraries regarding the desegregation of libraries across Northern Virginia. For a more in-depth look at how other library systems desegregated in Northern Virginia, see this report prepared by Fairfax County Public Libraries – Unequal Access: The Desegregation of Public Libraries in Virginia. FCPL also created a detailed video presentation on the topic, which is available on YouTube: Unequal Access: The Desegregation of Public Libraries in Virginia.

This article was authored by Camryn Bell, who is part of the County's management intern training program and has assisted in the collections of the Center for Local History since 2019. 

We hope this article adds to the conversation about segregation in its many forms, and about the history of race in Arlington County more broadly.

And we want to know: How does this story relate to your story? Do you have memories about the Holmes Library, or about segregation in Arlington's library system? Use the form below to send a message to the Center for Local History.

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Oral History: Rayfield Barber

A Lifetime at the Center of Arlington's Airport History

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Oral histories are used to understand historical events, actors, and movements from the point of view of real people’s personal experiences.

Rayfield Barber (1914-2011) was one of the few witnesses to the full trajectory of Arlington’s airport history over the course of his life, and was key to the success of the County's regional airfields.

Among one of the first airport employees in the burgeoning field of commercial flying, he had a distinguished career at both Washington-Hoover Airport and the National Airport.

Barber was born in 1914 in North Carolina, and came to live in Alexandria around 1920. Barber attended the Parker-Gray School, which at the time was Alexandria’s only primary school for Black children.

Rayfield Barber at National Airport, circa 1990s.

In 1932, Barber began working for the West Brothers Brick company, an Arlington-based operation that used materials from the clay deposits on the Potomac to create its product. Barber worked as a machine operator at the factory until 1937. 

Panoramic of the West Brothers brickyard, circa 1903.
Read and listen to Rayfield Barber speaking about his time working at the West Brothers Brick Company in our blog post for April 2021.

When Barber was still working at the brick factory, the Hoover Airport was in its nescient stages. The airfield opened in 1926, and merged with the adjacent Washington Airport in 1933. It was known as one of the most dangerous airfields in the country at this point, in part due to Military Road – a large thoroughfare that brought car traffic between the two airfields.
Barber began working at the airfield in the summer of 1939. In this excerpt from his oral history interview, he describes the early scenes of the airport.

Narrator: Rayfield Barber
Interviewers: Edmund Campbell and Cas Cocklin
Date: July 17, 1991

Edmund Campbell: Tell us something about the Hoover Airport, what it looked like and what were the conditions? 

Rayfield Barber: It had a hangar that was right on No. 1 Highway. You know, just right off Number 1 Highway. The terminal was setting, say, a little to the northwest of the hangar.    

Cas Cocklin: Sort of where that marina is now?  

RB: Yes, that's where it was.  Right back of the hangar was where the airplanes coming in would come down on the runway.    

EC: Only one runway, wasn't it?  

RB: That's all.  

Aerial photograph of Washington Airport, Hoover Field, and the Arlington Beach and Amusement Park on the Potomac River, circa 1920s.

EC: And where did that runway go from?  

RB: It ran right on down close to the experimental farm. You see the roadway would come up by the restaurant and food.   

EC: The roadway ran right through the runway, right across the runway, didn't it?

A passenger plane flying low over several cars at Hoover Field, circa 1930s.

RB: That road would run right across the runway and they had those lights set up.   

CC: Stoplights.  

RB: Stoplights.

CC: To stop the traffic if a plane was landing or taking off.  

RB: That's right. See, because that road was coming right along from, coming away from Arlington Cemetery . . .  

CC: Going toward Route One. 

Listen to this audio from Barber's interview:

Several cars and a bus driving on Military Road with a sign that says "Road Very Dangerous, Travel at your own risk," circa 1930s.

Several cars driving down a road with a sign that says "Military road, very poor conditions, drive at your own risk," circa 1930s.

Porters at the airfield were initially called “Redcaps” due to the red hats they were required to wear as part of their uniforms. Later they were known more generally as “skycaps," most notably at the National Airport. Initially, Barber was initially paid only in tips, ranging from 10 cents to a dollar, depending on the customer.

“ ’Skycaps’ at the entrance to the administration building. Municipal airport, Washington, D.C,” circa 1941. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Simultaneously, Barber also worked as a taxi driver. He was one of the first Black operators of a taxicab service in Northern Virginia, which he ran through the early 1940s before the start of WWII. When the United States entered the war, it became too difficult to obtain equipment such as tires due to the war production effort.

During this time, Black people in Arlington had to travel to Washington, D.C., to receive medical care, as Virginia hospitals were segregated and had limited resources for Black patients, and expectant mothers were often barred from the maternity ward in full. The Friendly Cab Company was another local service that addressed this issue, providing ride services to Black customers beginning in 1947.

At the Washington-Hoover Airport, Barber met notable figures such as Horace Dodge, Clark Gable, Wallace Berry, the Roosevelts, and the Kennedy family. At the time, Washington Hoover was the only major airport in the area, so it was a thoroughfare for notable individuals.

Flying was also still a new form of transportation and was no exception to the Jim Crow laws that affected every level of life for Black Americans. This made commercial flying largely exclusive to wealthy, white customers.

Reproduction image of a National Archives print that reads: "A full view of the four-motored Douglas C-54 skymaster dubbed the 'Flying White House', an ATC transport specially built for President Roosevelt." From RG 13.

In the 1930s and 1940s, airports across the South began to segregate their facilities, either by sanctioned law or racist informal practices. In 1944, during World War II, members of the Tuskegee Airmen integrated the National Airport’s cafeteria after initially being denied service. However, after the war ended, segregation soon re-installed itself in airport facilities. After pressure from President Truman, the airport desegregated its restaurants in 1948, but only the next year, a D.C. resident brought a suit against the Air Terminal Services arguing that she had been denied service on account of her race.

In June 1941, when Hoover closed, Barber moved to the National Airport. On its opening day, Barber was the first on the runway, unloading one of three planes that inaugurated the debut (and American Airlines DC-3). As one of three skycaps working at the time, he earned $1.25 for 10 hours of work each day.

The main building of the Washington Airport, in the early 1930s.

Freshly completed Terminal A of the Washington National Airport, circa late 1930s.

Barber worked at National Airport until the early 1990s, accruing more than 50 years of airport experience. Barber’s interview describes many fascinating aspects of his life, such as fortuitously being home from work the day of the 14th Street Bridge crash, to meeting every first lady since Eleanor Roosevelt over the course of his career. In this selection, Barber sums up his work at the airport: 

EC: As soon as Hoover Airport was closed, you moved over to National, did you?  

RB: That's right.  

EC: And acted as a porter there? 

RB: That's right.  

EC: And you still are a porter at National? 

RB: I'm still there.  I'm considering retiring. 

EC: But you haven't retired yet? 

RB: I haven't retired yet. 

EC: So, you have been a porter either at Hoover Airport or at National Airport or both for how long? 

RB: About fifty‑two years.  Fifty‑two years.  I had been at National fifty years.  I went to National June 16th, 1941.   

EC: They had a special ceremony, didn't they, last month for you?   

RB: Yeah, they had a special ceremony at Crystal City Marriott Hotel and a real special one was over at Crystal City building they sometime call No. 3, that's when Mr. Robb was there, and former governor Holton of Virginia. 

Listen to this audio from Barber's interview:

Additional photos of Rayfield Barber at Washington National Airport, circa 1990s. Photos by former County photographer Deborah Ernst.

The goal of the Arlington Voices project is to showcase the Center for Local History’s oral history collection in a publicly accessible and shareable way.

The Arlington Public Library began collecting oral histories of long-time residents in the 1970s, and since then the scope of the collection has expanded to capture the diverse voices of Arlington’s community. In 2016, staff members and volunteers recorded many additional hours of interviews, building the collection to 575 catalogued oral histories.

To browse our list of narrators indexed by interview subject, check out our community archive. To read a full transcript of an interview, make an appointment to visit the Center for Local History located at Central Library.

Do you have a question about this story, or a personal experience to share? 

Use this form to send a message to the Center for Local History.

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The Activists who Desegregated Arlington’s Movie Theaters

"The Price of a Ticket at the Cost of Your Conscience"

In 1959, Arlington became the first school system in Virginia to desegregate, and in 1960, after a series of organized sit-ins, the County desegregated its lunch counters. But the long road toward full desegregation of public and private institutions in Arlington and Virginia was just beginning, and an important milestone in this journey was Arlington’s movie theaters.

The process to extend equal rights to members of the Black community who wished to attend films and shows in the communities where they lived took three years, the dedication of Black activists, and extended legal battles against the County and the State.

The Right to Equal Enjoyment

In 1960, Arlington's six theaters – the Arlington, Buckingham, Byrd, Centre, Glebe and Wilson - were for the enjoyment of white people only, with no separate areas or alternate local options for Black patrons. Black Arlingtonians had to travel to Prince William County, Washington, D.C., or Alexandria to attend film screenings at integrated theaters.

Alexandria had a single theater open to Black patrons, the Capitol Theater at Queen and Henry Streets, which operated from 1937-1947, and later the Carver-Alexandria Theater, which operated until 1965.

Washington, D.C., had desegregated its theaters in the 1950s following extended boycotting, activism, and legal maneuvering led by Black Washingtonians. In 1950, two integrated theaters opened, and in 1952, the National Theatre (at the center of the integration battle) ceased segregation in its audiences. Finally, in 1953, a U.S. Supreme Court ruling struck down a law that permitted segregation in D.C. restaurants, and this ruling was applied to local theaters as well.

In an undated edition of “The Negro Citizen in Arlington,” published by the American Council on Human Relations, the broadside lays out the various inequities faced by members of the Black community in Arlington. Among the still-existing barriers listed was a lack of access to theaters in item 2: “If an Arlington Negro wants to see a movie, he must go to Washington. He cannot walk to a neighborhood movie or go to any Drive-In Theatre in the Arlington area because they are all closed to Negroes.” From RG 123.

 

Arlington, however, wouldn’t follow suit for another decade. In an oral history interview with Michael Jones, one of the first children to desegregate Arlington Public Schools, he recalls traveling outside of the County to attend movie screenings:

“At the time, we spent a lot of time going to D.C. because there were no movies. We couldn’t go to the movie theaters there, so we had to catch the bus to go to D.C. to watch movies. That was also something we had to do. It was just life as it was at the time. ... Yeah. Oh, yeah. I mean, we frequently caught the bus on Lee Highway, and it took us right down to D.C. — 11th and E. or the stops where the movie theaters were — so we spent a lot of time going back and forth. No subway then, so we — it was just the un-air-conditioned bus down there with the fans and everything like that.”

The segregation of Arlington’s movie theaters was aligned with other Jim Crow practices that  permeated the County's legal system at that time, and were based in segregation law surrounding public assembly and seating.

Virginia’s laws regarding "Separation of Races" in public settings had been adopted in 1926, requiring racially separate seating at any “public hall, theater, opera house, motion picture show or any place of public entertainment or public assemblage.” This law also provided that any proprietor who failed to segregate their audience would "be fined not less than $100 nor more than $500 for each offense” and that any patron of the theater who refused to take a seat in the assigned section or refused to move to the assigned section when requested, "shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof fined not less than $10 no more than $25 for each offense.”

This law had been periodically challenged in local and state courts, but judicial results and the actual local practices differed.

An Arlington judge ruled in 1957 that the segregated seating laws were valid, but in 1958 another judge ruled the law unconstitutional. And though no court had reversed the 1958 ruling, the laws still existed in practice.

Scanned document: Excerpt of Section 18-327 of the Virginia Code, which laid out the laws mandating segregated public assemblies. Image from RG 07, circa 1960.

Around 1960, following the successful desegregation of Arlington’s public schools, local activists directed their attention to the theaters. Civil rights groups initiated a letter writing campaign and conferences to encourage theater owners to bypass these laws, which had been done by other businesses that required public assemblages. The activists encountered only opposition from these campaigns.

On March 18, 1962, a group of 10 Black teenagers from Hall’s Hill attempted to attend a film in Arlington at the Glebe Theater and were denied entry.

The group reported this experience to the Social Action Committee of the Rock Spring Congregational Church, who agreed to create a subcommittee to address the issue of theaters.

Article from the Northern Virginia Sun on March 19, 1962. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

The Northern Virginia Committee to End Theater Discrimination was subsequently organized by the Councils on Human Relations of Alexandria, Fairfax, and Arlington to further support theater desegregation efforts.

Picketting Arlington Movie Theaters

Picketing was the next step in the fight, and was also sponsored by the local branch of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Picketing efforts were spearheaded by Dorothy Hamm, who led the picket lines. Hamm was a prominent local activist, and had been deeply involved in the legal and organizational effort to desegregate Arlington Public Schools and eliminate the poll tax.

Pickets were announced by CORE in early May 1962, and began on May 11 at the Glebe Theatre. This theater was selected as it was the site of the offices of Wade Pearson, who managed Neighborhood Theaters, the chain that operated theaters across Arlington and Fairfax.

See photo: The AP has an additional photo of the protests at the Arlington Theater. Dorothy Hamm holds a sign in the foreground, bearing the words at the start of this article.

Dorothy Hamm (1919-2004), who led the Arlington theater pickets. Image courtesy of Carmela Hamm via the Library of Virginia.

A 1962 pamphlet from the NAACP Arlington branch newsletter calls for participants in the picketing efforts to desegregate Arlington’s theaters. From RG 18.

In late May 1962, the Arlington County Board publicly denied responsibility for initiating integration by not taking an official stand on the segregation of the theaters. After local advocates appealed for public support for integration, Board Members argued it wasn’t within their authority to do so, or believed the decisions should rest with individual business owners (though they claimed to oppose the discrimination on a personal level). In response, individuals later called for a boycott of Arlington theaters in a Letter to the Editor in the Northern Virginia Sun, arguing “only white citizens can economically affect the theater owners by refusing to patronize their theaters.”

Additional pickets began in early June 1962, demonstrating at five of the County’s movie theaters. These protesters were faced with harassment from members from the American Nazi Party (led by George Rockwell and founded in Arlington in 1959), who launched their own counter-picket in response to the calls for desegregation.

A New Legal Barrier is Challenged in Court

Picketing continued throughout the summer, but the protesters soon faced a new obstacle. On June 28, 1962, it was reported that members of the Committee to End Theater Discrimination had been served with a notice by the Arlington Chief of Police that a new law would go into effect on June 30, putting the picketers at risk of arrest.

This amendment to the Virginia Code provided that individuals picketing against theaters and other businesses with the intent to “injure” a business “willfully and maliciously” could be found guilty of a misdemeanor, with a maximum penalty of $1,000 fine or 12 months in jail or both.

From The Northern Virginia Sun, July 12, 1962. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

On June 29, and July 1, 1962, 10 protesters were arrested while protesting at the Glebe and Buckingham theaters on the charges of “injuring business" under the new picketing law. Dorothy Hamm was among this group arrested, and all were released without bond. Hamm’s case, along with four others, was initially dismissed by the County Courts on July 2 on a lack of evidence that their actions had halted or injured business. Amidst this legal challenge, picketing paused until July 8, and continued throughout the week.

Meanwhile, the remaining five picketers who had been arrested were charged under all sections of the picketing law. The case then became an attempt to test the constitutionality of the amendment and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) joined to assist in the legal proceedings.

The five individuals were represented in court on July 17 by civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh, Jr., who argued that “How can it be ill will, malicious, wicked or mischievous to tell the public a theater does not admit Negroes, which is true, and to try to get them to change the policy?” and that picketing was a form of protected free speech.

The theaters were represented by Commonwealth’s Attorney William J. Hassan, who had argued the pickets injured the business policies established by the theater, and that the theater was “exclusionary” rather than segregated, as it did not offer even separate seating for Black patrons.

The lawyer Joseph L. Rauh, Jr. (1911-1992), represented the picketers who had been arrested protesting Arlington's segregated theater policy. Rauh was a prominent civil rights lawyer and advocate, and lobbied for the passage of the Civil Rights and Voting Rights Act. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.

 

The ruling was initially deferred, and the remaining five picketers were ultimately acquitted on August 14. County Court Judge Paul D. Brown stated that the facts were not sufficient to support a conviction, though it was not necessary to rule on the constitutionality of the law forbidding injury of business.

Change at Last

The next year saw an increase in legal interventions related to movie theaters and public assemblies around the state. In early 1963, theaters in Norfolk, Portsmouth, and downtown Richmond began to desegregate. They were followed by Alexandria theaters in May of 1963, which desegregated its Reed, Richmond, Virginia, and Vernon theaters.

On June 17, 1963, Arlington finally, and relatively quietly, desegregated its theaters.

In a June 18, 1963, Northern Virginia Sun report on the desegregation, the Neighborhood Theaters manager Wade Pearson denied that the theaters had ever been segregated at all, and claimed “the Neighborhood Theaters have never made it a practice of admitting persons to the movies on the basis of religion, creed, or race.” Regardless of this legally contradictory and factually incorrect messaging, the local branch of the NAACP was assured the theater would be integrated as of the June 17 date given by the theater owners.

The Buckingham Theatre, pictured in 1973, on Glebe Road. The theater - one of the theaters that was picketed in 1962 - remained operational until 1986 and was converted to a Post Office in 1990.

The Wilson Theater, another of the theaters that was picketed, at 1724 Wilson Boulevard. Pictured in 1940, this photo is from the Arlington Journal, October 5, 1998.

Dorothy Hamm and her son Edward Leslie, Jr., were the first Black patrons to attend a movie theater in Arlington. In this oral history interview, Dorothy Hamm recalled attending the theater for the first time:

Dorothy Hamm: On the first night when it was OK for us to go, my son and I and a white couple were among the ones who went to the theaters.

Edmund Campbell: Any particular incident of interest when you went into the theater?

DH: Well, I wasn't really sure whether they were going to let us in or not, so on that night a white couple and my son and I went to the theater.  The white couple purchased tickets, and when I went to purchase a ticket I wasn't really sure whether they were going to sell me a ticket or not.  We had prearranged it where I would be given a ticket by one of the white people, and I was going into the theater.  However, it happened that we were sold tickets, and my son and I went into the theater with the white couple.

EC: You spoke earlier of Arlington County, or perhaps they were state, seating laws.  Now with the theater selling you tickets, was this their own decision or had the seating law been changed?

DH: I don't believe the seating law...well, I'm not certain about that. I do know that it was a decision made by the manager of the theaters.  However, prior to this ‑‑

EC: Did you know him?  Mr. Wade Pearson?

DH: This was Mr. [Morton] Thalhimer. Prior to this, I had been called by the manager of the Glebe Theatre, and he had indicated even if he gave Blacks separate seating they only had one toilet facility, and separate toilet facilities were also required...

EC: When was that practice of separate toilet facilities abandoned in Arlington?  Later?

DH: Yes, it was.

On July 1, 1963, soon after the Arlington theaters opened their doors to Black patrons, Virginia’s seating law was officially struck down. The law had been challenged in a suit filed in February 1963 by two local women, Lillian S. Blackwell of Vienna, and Freddie Lee Harrison of Arlington, after they had been refused entry to the Jefferson Theater in Fairfax and the Glebe Theater in Arlington on account of their race. The women were represented by Noel Hemmendinger (also chairman on the Committee to End Theater Discrimination), and the court first heard the case in May, and by July ruled that the state statute was contrary to the 14th Amendment.

The struggle to desegregate Arlington’s theaters was a labyrinthine process that took immense courage, planning and organizations by the County’s civil rights activists. This achievement was just one milestone in the journey to make Arlington truly equal and equitable for all residents, a journey that continues to this day.

Front page of the Northern Virginia Sun on July 2, 1963. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

The Center for Local History at the Arlington Public Library collects, preserves and shares historical documents that tell the history of Arlington County, its citizens, organizations, businesses and social issues. The CLH operates the Research Room at Central Library and the Community Archives program.

Because there are always more layers of history to find and examine, the CLH continually seeks community donations and oral histories. Do you, or does someone in your family, have documentation or story to tell related to segregation or desegregation in Arlington?

Use this form to send a message to the Center for Local History or contact us at localhistory@arlingtonva.us.

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Oral History: Remembering Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in Arlington

A Crucial Leader of the Civil Rights Movement

Dr. Martin Luther King's leadership and message of nonviolent protest were essential to the steps made toward equality that culminated in legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The following are a few memories from our collections, and from broader Arlington history, to reflect on Dr. King’s legacy as we celebrate Martin Luther King, Jr., day on Monday, January 17th.

Dr. King addresses the crowd at the August 28, 1963, March on Washington. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

1963 March on Washington

On Wednesday, Aug. 28, 1963, Dr. King led the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom — often referred to as “The March on Washington."

This was a massive peaceful protest with the aim to advocate and speak on the need for economic and civil rights for Black Americans, with more than 200,000 people attending to take a stand against inequality. The march culminated with Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream Speech” on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.

In the days leading up to the march, civil rights activists from across the country stayed at Lomax Fellowship Hall at the Lomax AME Zion Church in Arlington’s Green Valley neighborhood. Dr. King and his close friend and advisor, the Reverend Ralph Abernathy, spoke in the church’s parking lot the day before the start of the march.

In the following interview from our oral history collection, Marionne Walls-Fort discusses Dr. King’s visit to Lomax. Walls-Fort is the daughter of Reverend Arthur W. Walls, who was a pastor at Lomax from 1960-1976.

Lomax AME Zion Church (photo 1991)

Narrator: Marionne Walls-Fort
Interviewer: Judy Knudsen
Date: October 7, 2016

Marionne Walls-Fort: "My parents were very influential in keeping us together in the civil rights movement. In fact, Dr. Martin Luther King spoke in the back of Lomax. When he was coming, he was looking for a church in Virginia, and my father volunteered. So he did one of his speeches in the backyard, because there’s a large back area behind Lomax Church. We got to meet Dr. Martin Luther King, and of course, Jesse Jackson who also spoke at our church for equal rights.

Dad had the Poor People’s March, when they came [in 1968]—and they would travel from church to church—we had them to stay overnight in our church. So when Dad said we’re going to help, we’re going to help get these cots together, we’re going to help in feeding the poor, we did everything as a family. And that instilled in all of us a sense of service even today that was instilled in our hearts, and that’s what we grew up with."

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Reverend Ralph Abernathy with members of the Lomax AME Zion Church and Father Ray from Our Lady Queen of Peace on August 27, 1963. This photo is from Record Group 328, comprising the archives of Lomax AME Zion Church which were donated to the Center for Local History in 2020.

In another oral history interview, Arlington resident Jackie Smith discusses attending the March on Washington along with other members of Our Lady Queen of Peace Roman Catholic Church, also located in Green Valley.

Narrator: Jackie Smith
Interviewer: Virginia Smith
Date: May 31, 2019

Virginia Smith: Tell me about the day you all went to the Martin Luther King March on Washington.

Jackie Smith: Okay. Well, I remember we went on the bus, the whole group, a busload of Our Lady Queen of Peace people.

VS: With Father Ray?

JS: Father Ray, I don't remember him being on the bus.

VS: But he went?

JS: But I think he did. My memories are of the crowds of people. And the fact that I was going to see Martin Luther King Jr. who I'd heard about and seen on TV and I really loved the man, you know, and what he had to say, you know, but me being a little small, petite person, I went down by the waiting pool and everything. I couldn't see anything. So I climbed up in a tree so I could see him. And I did. I got to see him and of course, heard the speech because they had the big loudspeakers and all of that.

VS: So everybody heard the speech.

JS: But that was one of the greatest days of my life to be able to see Dr. Martin Luther King.

VS: And you knew what he was saying was important?

JS: Absolutely, yeah, I was a teenager, so I knew what he was saying was important, especially for Black people. I was looking at it from that perspective, too.

VS: And the atmosphere in the crowd?

JS: People were elated. They were all kinds of signs and all. It was wonderful.

"Part of the crowd at the Lincoln Memorial."

These photos from the August 29, 1963, edition of the Northern Virginia Sun capture scenes from the March on Washington. The caption on the photo at right reads, “READY TO MARCH – Members of the Catholic Interracial Council of Northern Virginia are shown as they left to march in the Wednesday parade following mass at St. Agnes and Blessed Sacrament Catholic churches. Left to right are John Phoenix, first president of the group, Edward J. Kelly, Mrs. James J. Rigdon, David Lee Scott, and Bernard Wiesmann, present president of the group. (SUN Photo by Beryl D. Kneen)” Images courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

A Community Mourns

On April 4, 1968, Dr. King was murdered on his hotel balcony in Memphis, Tennessee. Word reached the District of Columbia region around 8 p.m. that night, over the radio.

On April 5, the day following King’s death, an interracial group of about 400 students at Wakefield High School held an all-day sit-in in memory of the civil rights leader. Student leaders planned the demonstration, which was led by about 40 Black students who started the vigil in the school’s gymnasium.

Instead of attending classes that day, the group gathered to remember Dr. King and his impact, and over the course of the day the group was joined by hundreds of their peers. An impromptu memorial service was held in the school auditorium, led by Reverend Walls. For the rest of the day the students gathered in the school’s courtyard to have disscussions and sing songs associated with the Civil Rights Movement including “We Shall Overcome” and “If I Had a Hammer.”    

The front page of the Northern Virginia Sun on April 5, 1968, the day following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

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WETA’s Arlington History: “It is the Programming that Counts”

WETA — the Washington Educational Telecommunications Association — is an iconic public media institution, serving the community in the national capital area for more than a half-century. Though its content explores topics and ideas spanning the globe, the public broadcasting station’s roots are in Arlington, where its headquarters are still located.

Pre-construction of The Village at Shirlington, 1988

This empty lot across from the Village at Shirlington would eventually be home to WETA's headquarters. Pictured here in 1988, the building was completed in 1989 and purchased by WETA in 1995.

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Campbell Place, as it is known, has been home to WETA ever since. Pictured here in 2021, it is located at 3939 Campbell Avenue. A second WETA building is located nearby at 3620 South 27th Street. The Campbell Avenue headquarters is currently undergoing a renovation scheduled for completion in late 2023.

The inaugural broadcast of WETA TV 26 took place on October 2, 1961, after an eight-year effort to bring public television to the national capital area. After the FCC reserved television channels for noncommercial educational programming in 1952, local publisher Willard Kiplinger organized and led what was then called the Greater Washington Educational Television Association to develop Channel 26, which had been set aside for the area. In 1956, Elizabeth Pfohl Campbell was brought on and began work as president in 1957. Campbell was a notable local educator; the first female School Board member in Virginia; and an activist who had worked to help desegregate Arlington’s schools. . Campbell served as WETA president until 1971, stepping aside to become vice president for community affairs, a position she held until her death in 2004 at the age of 101.

WETA originally operated out of Yorktown High School, with business offices located in the Campbells’ home. When Yorktown expanded, WETA later moved operations to American University and then Howard University's men's gymnasium in 1965. When Howard began its own broadcasting station in 1972, WETA-TV and WETA-FM operations were scattered at locations throughout the region, including at L’Enfant plaza in the District and at North 19th Road in Arlington.

In 1983, WETA’s Board of Trustees voted to consolidate operations at the 3620 South 27th Street location. The current WETA headquarters was constructed in 1989 and was purchased by WETA in 1995. It remains the company’s headquarters today.

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Elizabeth Campbell, date unknown.

From WETA, the following is one of Elizabeth Campbell’s reflections on education and the WETA mission:

"Education opens doors. A life without education can be one of insularity and emptiness. Our schools and universities are vital resources, but it has been my belief for a very long time that television and radio can be powerful educators as well. However, television and radio are simply broadcast tools — it is the programming that counts. That's why public broadcasting is so important."

In 2007, the Arlington County Board renamed what had been 28th Street South to Campbell Avenue in honor of Elizabeth Campbell and her husband, Edmund Campbell, a prominent local attorney and activist who played an important role in desegregating Virginia’s — and Arlington’s — public schools..

Oral History: Mary Cook Hackman

Politics, Parks and the Law

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Oral histories are used to understand historical events, actors, and movements from the point of view of real people’s personal experiences.

Mary Cook Hackman (1911-2005) was a prolific leader in Arlington, with a decades-long career that took on multiple paths.

Hackman moved to Arlington in 1949, and quickly became involved in local civic affairs such as the desegregation of Arlington Public Schools. Over the years she also held positions including president of the Rock Springs Civic Association and later served as president of the Arlington Civic Association. She also took part in politics as a committee member for Arlingtonians for a Better County (ABC), and as a member of the 10th District Women’s Democratic Club.

Hackman

Mary Cook Hackman, circa 1958.

Hackman later entered the newspaper industry, creating a rival publication to what was then Arlington’s main newspaper, the Daily Sun. This new publication was founded in 1956 by Hackman and Anne Crutcher, and early investors included County Board member David Krupsaw and local lawyer and activist Edmund Campbell (also one of the interviewers of the subsequent oral history interview). The resulting weekly newspaper was called the Arlington Citizen and was distributed via mail to subscribers. After the Arlington Citizen eventually shut down publication, Hackman wrote a weekly political column in the Northern Virginia Sun.

Narrator: Mary Cook Hackman
Interviewers: Edmund Campbell and Cas Cocklin
Date: September 28, 1992
Note: The audio for this interview is currently unavailable.

Edmund Campbell/Cas Cocklin: Mary Cook, you had no printing office, you had no printing facilities, you had no clerks, how did you get out a newspaper?

Mary Cook Hackman: We found that there was somebody over in Georgetown, a printing company, and we hired them to do the printing. I don't remember what it cost but it was quite a lot. Anne and I would go over there every Wednesday morning with all of the typewritten pages that we wanted them to fit into this newspaper and then they would work on it a while and then we would say no, we want this story over to the left or up or down or something.

EC/CC: All your copy though, that you provided them was all written on the typewriter.

MCH: Yes, it was written by Anne or me.

EC/CC: On the typewriter.

MCH: Yes.

Screen Shot 2021-12-12 at 9.15.18 PM

Article from the May 2, 1957, edition of the Evening Star. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Hackman was later one of the two original members from Arlington on the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority – a group that was authorized by the Virginia Assembly in order to oversee land purchases by local governments that would eventually become public land for regional parks. Hackman served on the Park Authority for 11 years and assisted with milestones including the purchase of the first regional park in Viriginia, in Fairfax in 1959, and early work to develop Four Mile Run as a park.

EC/CC: Any experiences that you had on the Park Authority?

MCH: One of the things that taught me a great deal was the chairman, Ira Gabrielson, who was internationally known as a conservationist. He and I, we didn't have any staff, we didn't have anybody. He and I would go to the various governing bodies and ask for money and so we were in Fairfax and he got up and went up to, the case was called and went up and stood at the podium and he was so dull and didn't seem to understand the questions. And I thought should I go stand with him and explain all of this but something told me, “No, don't do that.” So I sat and the Board voted four to three to give us what we've been asking for and I thought, “Well, I'd better drive Gabe home because he obviously isn't well.” So we got out in the parking lot and Gabe's eyes were twinkling like always and I said, "What was the matter with you in there?" and he said, "I learned long ago when you have a majority of the votes in your pocket, don't say anything interesting."

link to read Mary Cook Hackman story.

From left to right: Peggy Fisher, Dr. Kenneth Haggerty, and Northern Virginia Regional Park Board members Mary Cook Hackman and Dorothy Grotos in 1968.

However, Hackman’s career didn’t end here. Though she hadn’t attended college, she was accepted probationally to the American University School of Law to take classes. And while she wasn’t initially permitted to earn a law degree, the university offered her the certification to complete the Virginia Bar following her passage of the coursework. She later passed the courses and the bar, and was eventually awarded a law degree. After that, she opened her own law practice and practiced law for over 30 years, into her eighties.

EC/CC: You did take your Virginia Bar and passed.

MCH: Yes.

EC/CC: And then opened a law office.

MCH: Yes, because nobody hired women then. So I opened my own law office.

EC/CC: You've been practicing ever since?

MCH: Yes.

EC/CC: That was approximately when, when you opened that?

MCH: 1962.

The goal of the Arlington Voices project is to showcase the Center for Local History’s oral history collection in a publicly accessible and shareable way.

The Arlington Public Library began collecting oral histories of long-time residents in the 1970s, and since then the scope of the collection has expanded to capture the diverse voices of Arlington’s community. In 2016, staff members and volunteers recorded many additional hours of interviews, building the collection to 575 catalogued oral histories.

To browse our list of narrators indexed by interview subject, check out our community archive. To read a full transcript of an interview, make an appointment to visit the Center for Local History located at Central Library.

Shirlington’s Cinematic Past

Shirlington has long been a bustling shopping center in Arlington, and is home to the AMC Shirlington Cinema 7, one of four movie theaters in Arlington County.

The existing cinema at 2772 South Randolph Street is the second major theater to serve Shirlington’s movie-loving population, which began with the Shirlington Theatre nearby at 2800 South Randolph Street.

The Shirlington Theatre opened on January 31, 1946, and at the time was the County’s largest theater (and also was touted as possessing “the South’s largest screen”). The 980-seat cinema debuted with the film “Love Letters” and featured a pre-show performance by local composer Leon Brusiloff’s string ensemble.

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Advertisement from the January 30, 1946, edition of the Evening Star announcing the debut of the Shirlington Theatre. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress

The theater was operated by the Alexandria Amusement Company and was part of a larger complex known as the “Shirlington Theatre Building,” which was home to other businesses including the Shirlington Radio Shop and various medical offices. In 1948, a notable addition to the Theatre Building was the Fairlington Library, which later became the Shirlington Library.

The Theatre Building was in turn part of the larger Shirlington Business Center, which until the 1960s was essentially segregated: Black patrons were allowed to shop, but were denied access to services such as eating at lunch counters or using leisure facilities like theaters. In June 1960, activists held a series of sit-ins at lunch counters around the County, including Lansburgh’s Colonial Room and Woolworth’s lunch counter in Shirlington. On June 22, Lansburgh's became the first Arlington lunch counter to desegregate, followed that same day by a number of other local restaurants. Arlington's theaters would not be desegregated until 1963, following protests led by civil rights leader Dorothy Hamm.

The Shirlington Theatre closed in 1957 and the building was demolished the following year to make way for the construction of a 150,000-square-foot Lansburgh’s department store, which operated in Arlington until the company went defunct in 1973.

Sun

Notice in the January 9, 1948, edition of the Sun about the opening of the Fairlington Library, which was located in the Shirlington Theater building. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle.

Arlington Daily

A July 8, 1947, article in the Arlington Daily shows local firefighters using the Shirlington Theatre as a training location.
Seven acres of land in the adjacent County Property Yard mentioned here were sold to the corporation for parking purposes after the theater was demolished. Image courtesy of Virginia Chronicle. 

Shirlington Cinema 7 opened on December 18, 1987, once again bringing film to the South Arlington area. The 6-screen theater was operated by Circle Theatres, a popular local cinema chain that had been founded in 1957 by two law students at George Washington University.

The same year the Shirlington Cinema opened, Circle Cinemas was bought out by Cineplex Odeon, which later managed the Shirlington location. Subsequent mergers led to the theater being referred to as the “Shirlington Loews Cinema” and in 2006 it formally became an AMC theater.

Shirlington movie theater, advertising Jane Eyre, Flirting with Disaster, Fargo, Sense and Sensibility, and the Postman. 1996, 1 negative, b&w, 35mm.

Shirlington Cinema 7 at 2772 South Randolph Street in 1996. 

Shirlington-2021

AMC Shirlington Cinema 7 in 2021. 

In 2015, the theater underwent a major renovation that included an expansion of its concessions and a reduction of its seating capacity in favor of the reclining chairs now popular in today’s cinemas. The theater is pictured here in 1996, with films including “Sense and Sensibility” and “Fargo” displayed on the marquee.

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